International Organization And Global Governance Dersi 8. Ünite Özet

Global Governance

The concept of governance refers to sustaining coordination and coherence among a wide range of actors with different aims and objectives. These actors include political actors, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), pressure groups, interest groups, individuals, and media (Pierre, 2000: 3-4). In other words, governance is a particular approach to managing relations that involves the active participation of non-governmental organizations, pressure and interest groups, individuals, and other political actors in decision-making mechanisms.

Governance involves two different models of management in decision-making processes on the issues that affect societies. In the first model, only the government gets involved in the process and uses its official authority and power to make decisions on various political, social, and economic issues. This model does not allow the active participation of other political actors in decision-making processes.

The second model is based on the principles of democratic and participatory management. In contemporary democracies, government decision makers cannot exercise their authority in isolation from others; decision-making processes are open to various political actors including the political opposition, civil society, NGOs, pressure and interest groups, and media. In this model, governments encourage the active participation of citizens in the management of political, social, and economic affairs. Therefore, the public sphere involves multiple actors whose voices are heard in policy-making processes. This allows the promotion of interests of the majority of the society in politics. According to Rod Rhodes (1996: 653), the concept of governance refers to:

• Collective governance,
• New public management,
• Good governance,
• Interdependency,
• Socio-cybernetic systems,
• New political economy,
• Networks.

Global Civil Society and Global Governance

Civil society is a public space in which autonomous groups and associations operate independently from governments. Global civil society refers to a domain where transnational non-governmental organizations and other transnational actors interact. Global civil society defines a global realm where individuals and nongovernmental organizations can interact with each other, with international organizations, and with states.

Transnational advocacy networks: “A transnational advocacy network includes those relevant actors working internationally on an issue who are bound together by shared values, a common discourse, and dense exchanges of information and services” (Keck and Sikkink, 1998:2). Brunkhorst calls global civil society the global public sphere. The global public sphere includes social movements, non-state actors, and global citizens. Brunkhorst states that non-state actors in the global public sphere enter into dialogue with nation states and international organizations (Brunkhorst, 2002:682-690). Similarly, Lynch underlines the role of transnational public opinion networks in the global public sphere and argues that these networks affect the decision-making processes of both nation states and coalitions of states (Lynch, 2000: 321). Transnational networks shape global policies in global governance where there is no central government or authority.

The most important element of global civil society is the mutual agreement on sustainable cooperation among nonstate actors. International non-governmental organizations and other non state actors in global civil society can therefore influence national and global issues and put mutually interactive decision making on the agenda (Heywood, 2015: 79-81). The existence of this power reinforces the belief of non-state actors that they are able to shape decisions in an attempt to solve global problems. Having touched on the role of global civil society in global governance, we can now examine non-state actors in some detail.

International Non-Governmental Organizations and Global Governance

As non-state actors, international nongovernmental organizations are private, financially independent, and non-commercial groups that carry out their objectives through non-violent means. The World Bank defines international non-governmental organizations as “private organizations that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote the interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services or undertake community development.”

Başlar (2005: 32-33) has developed the most comprehensive definition of international nongovernmental organizations and identified their basic characteristics as follows:

• International NGOs emerged as a result of carrying individual and group interests beyond the state borders.
• International NGOs are not founded by states or intergovernmental organizations.
• International NGOs are constituted by natural or legal persons with voluntary membership.
• Through their activities, international NGOs are able to play roles in international relations. Their members have independent voting rights.
• International NGOs have a permanent and institutionalized administrative structure with full-time personnel, an organization scheme, and a headquarter in a specific location.
• International NGOs have a democratically accepted charter that is prepared by a representative body, an autonomous decisionmaking mechanism independent from government policies, and financial resources that are totally or largely independent from central governments.
• International NGOs do not engage in a partisan behavior. • International NGOs have organizational structures in more than two countries.
• International NGOs adopt the objective of the United Nations as their own principles, and they aim to realize policies that will improve people’s quality of life, serve for the common good of humanity, and help disadvantageous people.
• International NGOs do not use violence.
• The primary aim of International NGOs is not to obtain profits.
• International NGOs are social institutions that possess legal personality.
• International NGOs respect the principle of noninterference in domestic affairs of states.

Historical Background

Although international non-governmental organizations became influential actors in international relations with the rise of globalization at the beginning of the 1990s, these organizations have existed since the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. The early examples of international NGOs were the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade (1787), the International Association of Geodesy (1862), and the International Committee of the Red Cross (1863). The International Workingmen’s Association (1864), the International Law Association (1873), the International Literary and Artistic Association (1878), the Inter-Parliamentary Union (1889), and the International Peace Bureau (1892) were also among the international NGOs established during the nineteenth century. The Union of International Associations (1907), the International Federation of Trade Unions (1919), and the International Chamber of Commerce (1919) were examples of international nongovernmental organizations founded in the early twentieth century.

Functions of International Non-Governmental Organizations

International non-governmental organizations have both operational and advocacy functions at the global level. International non-governmental organizations do not operate in isolation from other actors and organizations. Since their numbers grew and their functions diversified during the 1990s, international NGOs have become enormous global organizations today. For example, the Care International works around the globe to defeat poverty with a budget of more than 500 million Euros. Greenpeace deals with problems related to the climate change and environment. The organization has 2.5 million members around the world and more than 1,200 employees. The Amnesty International has more financial resources than many UN agencies. For instance, World Vision International as the world’s largest INGO, has an annual budget of US$2.8 billion (in 2011), which is greater than the budget of all UN agencies combined other than the World Food Programmer (WFP), and more than the gross national income (GNI) of smaller African and European countries.

The Classification of International Non-Governmental Organizations

Weiss and Gordenker classify the activities of international non-governmental organizations in three categories: operational activities, defensive activities, and educational activities (Weiss and Gordenker, 1996). Operational activities refer to those activities through which NGOs provide services around the world. For example, providing urgent humanitarian aid and other types of assistance in case of natural disasters, migration, or refugee flows can be considered as operational activities.

Defensive activities refer to those activities of international NGOs to develop new policies and agendas, usually in the face of changing conditions. Through defensive activities, international nongovernmental organizations try to raise awareness among states and other actors about emerging problems in areas such as the environment and human rights. Defensiveness includes providing information to decision makers regarding agreements and contracts, helping them with the language of agreements, and obtaining the support of public opinion for certain causes. The third group is the educational activities of NGOs which aim to raise public awareness and alter public opinion.

The Roles and Impact of International NonGovernmental Organizations

International non-governmental organizations undertake a wide range of roles and tasks in global governance, including giving feedback, shaping public opinion, providing services, networking, education, norms setting, agenda setting, monitoring, and auditing. These roles increase their effectiveness, providing a perspective that differs from the official discourses of governments. Since they are considered objective, NGOs can engage with local people. International NGOs employ experts in their issue areas and operate relatively at low costs as they are based on the voluntary work of their members. The roles and impact of non-governmental organizations can be examined in three categories: shaping public opinion, contributing to international law, and providing information and documents for international organizations.

Non-Governmental Organizations as Tools for Shaping Public Opinion

International non-governmental organizations use media and the internet intensively to set national and international agendas. In the 2000s, the social media rapidly became a significant tool to form public opinion and provided international non-governmental organizations with great opportunities to increase their impact and visibility.

The Contributions of International Non-Governmental Organizations to International Law

International non-governmental organizations have great contributions to the development of international law, particularly international human rights law and international environmental law. For example, the adoption of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights and the establishment of the European Committee for the Prevention of Torture and Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment were achieved with the support of the International Commission of Jurists (ICJ), one of the leading international NGOs in the field of human rights law. The International Law Commission was among the advocates of the establishment of an International Criminal Court in the World Conference on Human Rights held in 1993.

Providing Information and Documents for International Organizations

As transnational actors, international nongovernmental organizations can also monitor states’ practices and investigate whether or not states act in accordance with international law. They identify global problems and share relevant information with other international actors. International NGOs also help intergovernmental organizations prepare reports about the fulfilment of international agreements by states. Progress reports issued by the European Union illustrate this point. Each year the EU Commission evaluates the progress of the EU candidate countries with regard to the Copenhagen Criteria, based on information provided by the candidate country, national parliaments and the EU Parliament, international organizations such as the European Council and the OSCE, international finance organizations, and national and international non-governmental organizations.

Other Non-State Actors

Think Tanks

Think tanks are organizations that promote new ideas, conduct research, and lobby governments about various topics including politics, foreign policy, military and defense issues, social and cultural problems, and the economy. Think tanks are usually organized as research institutes, centers or foundations. Most think thanks are non-governmental organizations. Think tanks are accepted as non-profit organizations that serve the public interest by acting as a bridge between the academia and policymaking communities (Haass, 2002: 1).

In the beginning of the 1900s, significant think tanks were established for informing governments not only about domestic politics but also about foreign policy. These include the Russel Sage Foundation established in 1907, the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace established in 1910 by Andrew Carnegie, the Hoover Institution in 1919 by former US President Herbert Hoover, the Council on Foreign Relations in 1921, the Brookings Institution established in 1927, and the American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research founded in 1943. The American Enterprise Institute is one of the most effective think tanks in the US, which is dedicated to advance democracy, free enterprise, and American global leadership.

Second Generation Think Tanks

The US emerged as a superpower after the end of World War II. The increasing role of the US in the international system created need for more research and expert opinions on world affairs. This increased the importance of think tanks (Abelson, 1996: 50). As such, the second generation of think tanks arose with the beginning of the Cold War. To a large extent, these think tanks were financially supported by governments and intelligence agencies in this period.

Third Generation Think Tanks

The third generation think tanks are identified as partisan organizations. Their agendas are shaped by their political ideologies, and there is no clear line between objective political research and political advocacy. Indeed, the main goal of the third generation think tanks is to become part of political processes.

Founded in 1962, the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) is one of the important third generation think tanks in the United States. The CSIS tries to provide strategic insights and realistic policy solutions for global issues. The work of the CSIS covers three main areas: security and defense policies, global tendencies, and regional politics. The former U.S. Senator Sam Nunn has chaired the organization since 1999. The CSIS publishes books, analysis and reports on various global topics. Some examples of its publications are China’s Energy Future, Globalization and National Security, and The Future of Islam and the West.

Fourth Generation Think Tanks

The fourth generation think tanks were mostly created by former US presidents who wanted to leave a lasting legacy in foreign and domestic politics. The Center for the National Interest is one of the most influential fourth generation think tanks in the US, which was established by former US President Richard Nixon in 1994 “to serve as a voice for strategic realism in U.S. foreign policy. “The aim of the Center is “to stimulate debate, promote public understanding of U.S. foreign policy and international affairs, and define principled yet pragmatic policies to advance America’s national interest in the complex world of the twenty-first century,” ( www.cftni.org ).

International Pressure and Interest Groups

International pressure and interest groups are also nonstate actors that are active in international politics. International pressure and interest groups have long been influential in world politics, affecting the policies of governments and intergovernmental organizations. The most notable examples of international pressure and interest groups are formed by labor and businesses.

The World Confederation of Labor This institution was founded as the International Federation of Christian Trade Unions (IFCTU) in 1920. It was renamed as the World Confederation of Labor (WCL) in 1968. Today, the WCL represents national and international labor unions with more than 30 million members in 116 countries. It has four regional branches in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and North America. The headquarter of the WCL is based in Brussels, Belgium. Its principal organs are congresses, a confederal committee, a general secretary, and regional bureaus.

The European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC) was established in 1973 to represent and promote workers’ interests at the European level. The ETUC endeavors to influence various EU organs and structures such as the European Commission, the European Council of Ministers, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee, and the Committee on Employment and Social Affairs. In addition, the ETUC has the consultancy status in the EU Commission, and it maintains contact with various political parties and groups in the European Parliament.

The Association of European Chambers of Commerce and Industry (EUROCHAMBRES) is a non-profit international organization that was established in the Conference of Chambers on February 28, 1958. EUROCHAMBRES supports the European Chambers of Commerce and Industry and plays an effective role in EUrelated economic issues in order to strengthen the position and voice of the business community in EU decisionmaking processes. EUROCHAMBRES carries out projects to increase its effectiveness, offer better services to members and establish a European network for entrepreneurs.

Political and Bureaucratic Leadership

As we discussed above, international NGOs have been increasingly active players in global governance. Their role has expanded due to growing cross-border activism, the rise of permanent transnational networks, and international campaigns that often influenced the outcomes of decision making on global issues. On the other hand, political and bureaucratic leaders who have significant roles in transnational networks are crucial in global governance. Transnational networks include nongovernmental organizations, civil society, corporations, and social movements. Individual leaders fulfill important functions in these networks such as guiding international social and civil forces and developing solutions for global issues.

A final example can be the Elders. The Elders is an independent group of global leaders working together for peace and human rights. The initiative originates from a conversation between entrepreneur Richard Branson and musician Peter Gabriel. They thought that in an increasingly interdependent world, a small and dedicated group of individuals could use their collective experience and influence to help solve global problems. Richard Branson and Peter Gabriel took their idea of a group of ‘global elders’ to Nelson Mandela, former President of South Africa, who agreed to support it. With the help of Graça Machel, his wife, and Desmond Tutu, the Anglican Archbishop Emeritus of Cape Town, Mandela set about bringing the Elders together and formally launched the group in Johannesburg in July 2007 ( www. theelders.org ).

The Elders share a common commitment to peace and universal human rights. They also bring with them a wealth of diverse expertise and experience because they are:

• the peace makers, with decades of experience mediating and resolving conflicts around the world.
• the peace builders who have helped post conflict societies to heal wounds and rebuild.
• the social revolutionaries who transformed their own countries - whether by reducing poverty, improving the status of women, or championing nonviolent struggle.
• the pioneering women who have governed their countries, led international institutions and spearheaded movements to empower women ( www.theelders.org ).