Introduction to World Civilization Dersi 2. Ünite Özet

The Origin of the Mesopotamian

The Mesopotamian Civilization is thought to be the founding civilization in world history. That is, its first settlers (5000 BCE) stand out as the earliest, surely in the Western world, to form a civilization. There are five key characteristics that set its city, Sumer, apart from earlier human habitations, according to the World History Library (library 07.com):

• Advanced cities (commencing at 4000 BCE),
• Specialized workers,
• Complex institutions,
• Record keeping in writing, and
• Improved technology (the wheel).

The period, in which herding and agriculture came into widespread employment, is called by scholars the “New Stone Age” or (drawing from the Latin) the “Neolithic Age .” Our species of the Family of Man, Homo sapiens, which had been increasing very slowly, its numbers having reached – possibly – as many as 5 million in the world. This tremendous growth was due to the role of agriculture and its displacement of our previous way of existence, hunting and gathering.

In about 5000 BCE, a group of people called the Sumerians engaged in the search for a good climate and productive soil; they began to settle in the TigrisEuphrates valley, where Iraq is located today.

Civilization -- People were settling in villages, town, and cities. he surpluses of food and wealth had to be protected by developing some of the indicia of modern civilization: military, administration and government. So, from 5,000 BCE onward, we see the drive toward “urbanization.”

n Latin, the word for a city-dweller is civis. The noun derived from civis is civilization .

About 4000 BCE, the Sumerians founded the cities of Ur and Lagash , at the mouth of the Euphrates river. These constituted the largest cities in the world.

Since the highly productive soil of the Tigris- Euphrates valley can be described in ancient Greek as “the Land Between the Rivers,” this valley has been known as Mesopotamia . Mesopotamia, the Land Between the Rivers, may be called the Cradle of Civilization.

The innovations of these industrious people included

• the invention of the wheel,
• the planting of the first cereal crops,
• the development of cursive script,
• mathematics,
• astronomy, and
• agriculture.

The Mesopotamian Civilization was the first complex civilization. There followed on the same ground the following people who dominated this civilization’s development, activities, and fall and built subsequent ones:

• The Sumerians (5000-2300 BCE) were the first humans known to form a civilization. They invented city, government, and writing -- the frame of civilization.
• The Akkadians (2334 – 2193 BCE) came next. They shaped the first united empire and thus the city-states of Sumer were united under one ruler. The Akkadian language replaced the Sumerian language during this time and later became the language of Mesopotamia.
• The Babylonians (2004-1595 BCE and 625-539 BCE) established the city of Babylon, which became the most influential city in Mesopotamia. At times the Babylonians would form vast empires that ruled much of the Middle East. The Babylonians were the first to record their system of law.
• The Assyrians (870-612 BCE) came from the northern part of Mesopotamia. They were a warrior society. They also reigned much of the Middle East at different periods over the history of Mesopotamia.
• The Persians (539-323 BCE) laid an end to the rule of the Assyrians and the Babylonians. They conquered much of the Middle East including Mesopotamia.
• In later years, this region, Mesopotamia, fell under the rule of other nations and civilizations, the Persians, the Romans, and the Islamic civilization.

Mesopotamia and the Tigris-Euphrates River

Valley constituted one of the most significant of our world’s ancient civilizations.

The Religion of the Mesopotomian Civilization

The people of Mesopotamia believed that the universe was controlled by gods and goddesses who had to be obeyed and worshipped with prayers and offerings. This was a central feature of the River Valley Civilization.

Sumerian religion evolved out of a polytheistic pantheon whose principal deities were the god of air (Enlil), water (Enki), earth (Ki), and heaven (An). There were also gods of the sun, moon, and planets, of rivers, lakes, winds, even

Temples were the centers of religious activities.

A ziggurat is a temple of ancient Mesopotamia (they were built since 2000 BCE) that takes the form of a stepped pyramid or tower.

An example of a simple ziggurat is the white Uruk Temple, in ancient Sumer.

In Sumerian, the word for the great ziggurat of Babylon was Etemenanki , which means “temple of the foundation of heaven and earth.”

Seven levels represent the seven skies or planes of existence, the seven planets, the seven metals, each associated with its corresponding color (Wikipedia/ziggurat).

The Civilizing Society of the Mesopotomian Civilization

Sumerian society was based on a complex arrangement of freedom and dependence. It was divided in four categories:

• Nobles,
• Free clients of the nobility,
• Commoners, and
• Slaves.

The first important set of rules or code of laws was fashioned by Hammurabi , the King of Babylon around 2000 BCE. They were 282 laws in Hammurabi’s code and they covered everything that seemed likely to be important.

Hammurabi’s chief concern was to make sure of two things:

• The man who had done wrong should pay for it,
• The man who had suffered should be paid for it.

Here are a few examples of Hammurabi’s laws (prezi.com):

• If any one finds runaway male or female slaves in the open country and brings them to their masters, the master of slaves shall pay him two shekels of silver.
• If anyone is committing robbery and is caught, then he shall be put to death.
• If a son strikes his father, his hand shall be hewn off.
• If a man knocks out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out.
• If a man strikes a free-born woman so that she loses her unborn child, he will pay ten shekels for her loss.
• If a slave says to his master: “You are not my master,” and if they convict the slave, his master shall cut off the slave’s ear.

War-making: “During their zenith from 10th century BCE to 7th century BCE, the Assyrians controlled an enormous territory that extended from the borders of Egypt to the eastern highlands of Iran. Many historians perceive Assyria to be among the first ‘superpowers’ of the Ancient World. It was a reactionary measure in the Assyrian society – one that led to the development of an effective and well-organized military system that could cope with the constant state of aggression, conflicts, and raids (much like the later Romans).

Daily Life: The daily life of the ancient Mesopotamians was not so different from the lives of those who live in that area (Iraq and Syria) today. Like those of the modern era, the people of the ancient regions of Mesopotamia loved their families, worked their jobs, and enjoyed their leisure time.

The Civilizing Culture of the Mesopotomian Civilization

Among their stupendous achievements is the fact that the ancient Sumerians developed the first form of writing; that clearly constitutes the greatest contribution of Mesopotamian Civilization.

As we look at their cuneiform writing, we see, for example, a “drawing of a person’s head; the meant the word ‘head.’

Later, the Sumerian writing system included signs for the counting system, which had a base of 60 (a so- called sexagesimal numeral system).

Art and Craftsmanship: The people of Sumer, who lived in southern Mesopotamia, “worked in gold and lapis as well as clay and wood. They made jewelry and small statues from gold and lapis. They also built intricate chairs from wood and reeds. They made musical instruments. They made unbelievable pottery, samples of which are depicted below. And they made mosaics.

The Babylonians who, by contrast, lived in middle Mesopotamia, “built on top of the remains of some ancient cities. They, too, worked in gold, lapis, wood, and clay. They too made jewelry, musical instruments, small statues, intricate chairs, weapons, and mosaics.

The Assyrians arose in the northern region of Mesopotamia. “They did not create the small statues and objects of art as the Sumerians and the Babylonian people did. They created murals and paintings that showed them fighting or hunting. Their murals showed how the royalty lived. We can tell a lot about their daily life from the activities shown in these paintings and murals” (mrdonn.org). “In ancient Sumer and Babylon, people were paid for their goods or labor.

Music : “Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events. Although music and songs amused kings, they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked to sing and dance in their homes or in the marketplaces.

Games: “Hunting was a popular recreational activity among Assyrian kings. Boxing and wrestling feature frequently in art, and some form of polo was probably played.” But in the Assyrian version men sat on the shoulders of other men, rather than on horses. They also played majore, a game similar to the modern sport of rugby, but it is played with a ball made of wood” (gutenberg.org; Nemet- Nejat, 1998).

Family Life: “Mesopotamian society was ruled by a ‘council of elders’ in which men and women were equally represented, but over time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased” (gutenberg.org).

“As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals, such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, went to school. Most boys were taught their father’s trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade. Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after the younger children. Unusual for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had rights. They could own property and, if they had good reason, get a divorce” (gutenberg.org; Harris, 2000).

Burials : “In the city of Ur, most people were buried in family graves under their houses, along with some possessions. “Deceased children were put in big jars or urns, which were placed in the family chapel. Other remains have been found buried in common city graveyards” (gutenberg.org; Bibby and Phillips, 1996).

Philosophy: The Babylonians developed among the earliest form of logic, notably in the rigorous “nonergodic” nature of their social systems. Babylonian thought was clear and is comparable to the “ordinary logic” or non- mathematical logic described by John Maynard Keynes. Babylonian thought was also based on an open-systems ontology which is compatible with ergodic maxims (Gutenberg.org; Dow, 2005).

Logic was employed to some extent in Babylonian astronomy and medicine. The Babylonian text Dialogue of Pessimism contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the sophists, the Heraclitan doctrine of contrasts, and the dialectic and dialogs of Plato (Buccelati, 1981).

Science and Technology: “Mathematics and science (as noted) were based on a sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system. This is the source of the contemporary 60-minute hour, the 24-hour day, and the 360-degree circle. The Sumerian calendar was based on a seven-day week. This form of mathematics was instrumental in early mapmaking” (gutenberg.org)

• The Babylonian astronomers were good at mathematics and could predict eclipses and solstices. Scholars thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related to religion and omens.
• Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12-month calendar based on the cycles of the moon (Wikipedia/Mesopotamia). They divided the year into only two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology are said to date from this time. Babylonian astronomy served as the basis for much of Greek, classical Indian, Sassanian, Byzantine, Syrian, medieval Islamic, Central Asian, and Western European astronomy (Montelle, 2011).
• Medicine was advanced by the Babylonians, who introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions.
• “In addition, the Diagnostic Handbook introduced the methods of therapy and etiology and the use of empiricism, logic, and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical observations, along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis” (Lindh, 2017).

Their Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of maxims and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine:

• the patient’s disease,
• its etiology,
• its future development, and
• the chances of the patient’s recovery (Horstmanshoff and Stol, 2004).

“They were also one of the first Bronze Age societies in the world. Early on they used copper, bronze, and gold, and later they used iron. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and maces” (sciencedaily.com).

The Civilizing Infrastructure of the Mesopotomian Civilization

The cities of Mesopotamia generally followed the pattern of the Sumerian city .

Architecture : The most significant of the Mesopotamian architectural accomplishments are in the development of urban planning, the courtyard house, and ziggurats. he Mesopotamians regarded ‘the craft of building’ as a divine gift taught to men by the gods.

Houses: The materials used to build a Mesopotamian house were similar to but not exactly the same as those used today. Chief substances used were mud brick and mud plaster, which were all naturally available around the city, and wooden doors, although wood was not common in some cities of Sumer (Postgate, 1994).

“Most houses had a square center room with other rooms attached to it

Roads: In Mesopotamia, major cities such as Ur and Uruk had stone-paved streets (ancestral journeys. org). The people of Mesopotamia are credited with developing the first roads dating back to 4000 BCE

Transportation: The first use of the wheel for transportation was probably on Mesopotamian chariots in 3200 BC. “The earliest known use of the wheel was a potter’s wheel that was used at Ur in Mesopotamia as early as 3500 BCE. The first use of the wheel for transportation was probably on Mesopotamian chariots in 3200 BCE. “During the Old Babylonian period (about 2000-1600 BCE) many different types of transport were used; forexample, boat and donkey.

Irrigation: “The irrigation systems in Mesopotamia, unlike those of more modern vintage, had several major innovative components: canals, gated ditches, levees, and gates. This invention of ancient Mesopotamia had two main purposes: first and foremost, to protect Mesopotamia from the threat of flooding. Using flooding, however, with this system, could make the crops grow, instead of being washed away. Furthermore, the main water sources of this irrigation system were readily available: the rivers Euphrates and Tigris.

Time System: The Mesopotamians invented the 60- minute hour. The Babylonians (living in the middle of Mesopotamia) have been credited with coming up with the idea of dividing the hour into 60 minutes. The number 60 seemed to be prized especially since 360 divided by six is 60 and some scholars have speculated that is why hours are made up of 60 minutes and minutes are made up of 60 seconds (factsanddetails.com). “There were various Sumerian calendars. One contained 12 months of 30 days, and this added up to 360 day years; it was uncoordinated with seasonal change, so extra months were added every few years. The Elbaite calendar affixed a different name to every year that commemorated a great event. The year 2480 BCE, for example, is referred to as Dis mu til Mari ki (the Year of the defeat of Mari)” (factsanddetails.com).

The Timeline of Main Events of the Mesopotomian Civilization

• 5000 BCE: The Sumerians settle in Mesopotamia (Middle East).
• 5000 - 2300 BCE – the Sumerians (from the south) dominate Mesopotamia.
• 4000 BCE: The city Ur and Lagash, are developed near the mouth of the Euphrates river. Their presence may well have marked the official beginning of civilizational development in the world.
• 3300 BCE: Pictogram-oriented (cuneiform) writing was invented in Mesopotamia.
  • 2334 - 2193 BCE – The Akkadians (from the middle of the land between the rivers) dominate Mesopotamia.
  • 2004 - 1595 BCE – The Babylonians (also from the middle of the land between the rivers) dominate Mesopotamia.
• 2000 BCE: Hammurabi’s Code.
• 1600 BCE: The Mesopotamians begin to make glass.
• 1350 BCE: Cuneiform tablets from the period appear in Egypt, meaning probably that Mesopotamian culture impacted the Egyptian culture.
• 1000 BCE: Iron melted and used in Mesopotamia.
• 870 - 612 BCE: The Assyrians (from the north) dominate Mesopotamia.
• 625 - 539 BCE: The Babylonians (from the middle) dominate Mesopotamia.
• 539 BCE: Mesopotamia becomes a part of the Persian Empire.
• 334 - 328 BCE: The Persian Empire, including Mesopotamia, is conquered by the Macedonian king Alexander the Great. He dies in Babylon (middle part of Mesopotamia) in 323 BCE. The Mesopotamian Civilization merges with the Hellenic Civilization into the Hellenistic Civilization.
• 141 BCE: The Persian (Iranian) king Mithradates I, conquers Mesopotamia and makes it a part of the Parthian Empire.
• 115 - 117 CE: Mesopotamia becomes a part of the Roman Empire, briefly.
• 117 CE: Mesopotamia comes back to the Persian Empire once again.
• 226 - 637 CE – Mesopotamia becomes a part of the Sasanian Empire, which stretches from Mesopotamia to central Asia.
• 637 CE – Mesopotamia becomes a part of the Islamic Empire, conquered by Muslims from Arabia (ancient.eu).
• 7th Century: The Sasanian Empire was destroyed by Islamic conquest and displaced by the Rashidun Caliphat.
• 9th Century- 1258: Baghdadbecame the center of the “Islamic Golden Age”; this was under the Abbasid Caliphate.
• 1258- 16th century: with the Mongol invasion Mesopotamia, that is Iraq and Syria, became a province of the Turco-Mongol Ilkhanate.
• 16th- WWI - century: Ottoman Empire ruled the land
• WWI - Ottoman Empire rule ended. Iraq came to be administered by the British Empire as Mandatory Iraq until the establishment of the Kingdom of Iraq in 1933; France ruled Syria in the period from 1917 to 1946. A republic was established in 1958 following a coup d’état. Saddam Hussein controlled Iraq from 1979 to 2003, during which time there was the Iran–Iraq War and the Gulf War. Saddam Hussein was deposed following an invasion in 2003 by armed forces led by the United States. Over the following years, Iraq came to the brink of civil war, and the situation deteriorated after the withdrawal of U.S. troops in 2011. By 2015, Iraq was effectively divided (wikipedia/Iraq). These wars have destroyed a lot of ancient relics from the first world civilization, the setting which once hosted the mighty Mesopotamian Civilization.
• 21st century: two new civilizations are rising.

Global Civilization is transforming the Western Civilization and the global economy. Its spatial boundaries are world-wide, it utilizes unlimited connected cyberspace, and its quasi-religion is business. Society is headed by a global financial elite, culture is reflected in a global language, and there is a worldwide Western dress code.

Virtual Civilization is emerging as the extension of Global Civilization. Its religion is the belief in the power of unlimited freedom and common intelligence. Society is composed of close to two billion users of social networks, and culture is based on connected, techno-centrism, net-centrism, and cyber-ethics; it is informed by any-time, any-where, “death of distance,” a poverty of attention, and both the digital and the virtual divide. Increasingly, infrastructure is based on the Internet, computer networks, and world-wide cloud technology. (Targowski, 2015).