Introduction to World Civilization Dersi 7. Ünite Özet

Introduction

The Roman Empire fell to the Germanic tribes in 476 CE. Thereupon, the eastern portion became known as the Byzantine Empire, a civilization and polity which lasted eleven hundred years.

Unlike in the old Roman Empire, in the Byzantine Empire the emperor was absolute ruler of both church (Christianity) and state under a system called “caesaropapism.” The church has become known as Orthodox. Byzantine society consisted of both wealthy landowners and small farmers, the latter of whom were often drafted into military service in exchange for land from the government. Society was divided into political factions and these were seen especially at chariot races where the Blues, representing the wealthy and supporters of Orthodoxy in religion, raced against the Greens, representing the rest of the population, mostly heterodox in religion. Byzantine religion and culture were greatly influenced by the classical Greek inheritance.

The Origin Of The Byzantine Civilization

The Byzantine Civilization arose as the eastern portion of the Roman Empire and lasted, incredibly, for more than a thousand years. In 285 CE, the Roman Empire was divided by the Emperor, Diocletian, into a Western and an Eastern Empire. The western part came to an end when Rome was sacked, that is, when in 476 CE the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was forced to abdicate by Odoacer, a Germanic invader, and the Roman Senate decided to not nominate a new Roman Emperor but rather to send the symbols of Roman power to New Rome, Constantinople, the former Byzantium.

This empire, and the civilization it carried, commenced when the Roman emperor Constantine opted to build a new imperial capital, New Rome, upon the site of Byzantion -- or Byzantium, in Latin – then a small market town that happened to be brilliantly situated geographically.

The Religion Of The Byzantine Civilization

Religion may be the most enduring and fascinating aspect of the Byzantine Civilization. The emperor was no longer a deity; however, it was believed that he was ordained of God to rule, and his power was divine. Byzantines were inspired much more deeply by the philosophy and literature of classical Greece than they were affected by the thinking and writing of classical Rome. he influence of ancient Greece and its culture was immense, and thus many residents of Constantinople continued to worship the old Greek gods. From the debates arose what is called to this day Orthodox Christianity. Byzantium church officials did not agree with the Roman clerics on matters of doctrine, ritual, and church authority.

The religious contrast between the west and the east could not be more startling; in the east, the reverse of what developed in the west was true. In the Byzantine structure of government and religion, the church was a department of the state and, thus, for all practical purposes the emperor was the head. In fact, one of the emperor’s titles was “Equal to the Apostles.” Thus, the emperor at Constantinople played two roles simultaneously: the role of the emperor and the role of pope. This became known as “caesaropapism”.

Throughout its eleven hundred years of existence, the Byzantine Civilization frequently experienced wrenching theological controversies which arose and took decades to settle. One result of the theological controversies that arose from the spirit behind Arianism was the development within Byzantine civilization of a religious orientation known as the “Monophysites.” The Monophysites have been those who believe that Christ was both human and divine. A second theological controversy helped to bring about the schism between the East and West, weakening the existence of the empire as a single unit. This fight broke out over the issue of iconoclasm. It was the most divisive ecclesiastical policy.

Emperor Leo III (717-741 CE) was not iconoclasts and implemented a policy which sought to abolish image worship. However, Leo III’s policy of iconoclasm met with grave resistance in Byzantium and the outcome was large protests and riots.

Theological controversies demonstrated the extent of imperial initiatives in ecclesiastical matters. Such strong influence by the emperors in ecclesiastical matters suggests that caesaropapism was prevalent throughout the Byzantine civilization, lasting as long as the Byzantine Empire did.

Religion in the Byzantine Civilization was an amalgamation of Roman with Greek and Christian elements. In debating theological controversies, Greek philosophy heavily influenced the shaping of Byzantine Christianity.

A significant figure was St. Augustine, who lived from 354 to 430 CE. He was a theologian from North Africa (modern day Tunisia) whose teachings contributed mightily to the development of Christianity early on.

In the Byzantine Civilization, monasticism became a Christian way of life. As a result, many worldly men, including emperors, determined to become monks either earlier in their lives or on their deathbeds; their hope was that they would increase their likelihood of obtaining salvation. Another way to attain salvation, they thought, was available for those who did not wish to pursue life in a monastery; this was through the sacraments of the Church.

Thus, the elements of monasticism, sacraments, and the worship of ritual all grew to have greater importance in the Byzantine Civilization than in the West. This in fact was the form of Christian religion passed on by Constantinople to the Slavs, and it is still in use today, a  living remnant of the once mighty Byzantine Civilization.

The Civilizing Society Of The Byzantine Civilization

The Byzantine society provided the setting for a constant conflict between rich landowners and poor farmers. The result of the Roman Empire’s encouragement of large latifundia was to be found throughout the early Byzantine Civilization. These were huge estates owned by wealthy cultivators; on them, landless peasants worked in exchange for being given a portion of the yield.

The poor farmers were called upon to provide military service as soldiers in a theme.

The theme system was created to defend each of the provinces of the sprawling Eastern Roman and then, the Byzantine Empire.

The owners of large land holdings eventually seized the throne and, by the thirteenth century, the size and powers of the free peasant class were significantly diminished. This led to a decline of the class of free peasantry and had a significant effect on the revenues of the state and on recruitment for the military system. The pool of free peasants available to serve in the military under the theme system diminished. The imperial government could not recruit the numbers necessary to maintain a strong and trained army under the theme system. As time went by, the large landowners worked to oppose the interests of the imperial government, and they raised forces from their estates to advance their personal interests instead of that of the imperial government. This caused political, economic and most importantly military weaknesses in the Byzantium Empire.

The Relationship Between Civil and Military Power: The Roman Empire had been divided in 285 CE under Diocletian, but it was united once again under Constantine 306-337 CE and under Theodosius 379-395 CE; it was divided, however, by the latter’s two sons.

The empire was then again reunited in some regions in the sixth century by Byzantine Emperor Justinian (527-565 CE) who, spotting certain weaknesses in rule of the western areas by the barbarians. The overhaul and reforms, beginning with Italy and Africa, were meant to create a powerful system of military administration. The two areas, Italy and Africa, were placed under the control of a commander who was also the civil governor. Such figures were called (borrowing from the ancient Greek) exarchs, and the provinces under them were called exarchates. “Byzantine” in its meaning as a system characterized by a devious and usually surreptitious manner of operation, combined with an endless power struggle within an intricately involved, labyrinthine system.

The Civilizing Culture Of The Byzantine Civilization

Byzantine culture was essentially a Roman one to which was added Greek elements. The pool of free peasants available to serve in the military under the theme system diminished. The imperial government could not recruit the numbers necessary to maintain a strong and trained army under the theme system. As time went by, the large landowners worked to oppose the interests of the imperial government, and they raised forces from their estates to advance their personal interests instead of that of the imperial government. This caused political, economic and most importantly military weaknesses in the Byzantium Empire. At a time when Western Europe had receded into intellectual darkness, the Byzantines passed knowledge of the Greek classics through Arab intermediaries to Western Europe and, thus, to us today. It is the Byzantine Civilization which preserved for mankind its intellectual patrimony that arose in ancient Athens: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Homer, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and so many others, and passed the works of these thinkers and writers down through the medium of Arabic. The Western Civilization clearly today owes a huge cultural debt both to the Byzantine Civilization and to the Arabs for this transmission. An example of an outstanding great historian of the Byzantine civilization was Procopius, cited by author Will Durant as “the one great historian of the period.” In 550 CE, he published his Books of the Wars and Anecdota, or Secret History.

Byzantine Literature: Much of the prose literature created in the Byzantine period consists of theological writings. Frequently the topic concerned opinions on the relationship of members of the Christian Holy Trinity to each other and on the relationship of what was divine to what was human in Christ. It is thus little surprise that Byzantine prose focused on Christian saints and their lives. These were written for the masses and generally read like a novel. Each of these books for the masses seems to have told a personal story. In the story readers followed such topics as adventure, anxiety, deprivation, violence, and all types of personal agony. The novels each culminated in the final triumph of what was good and decent, virtuous and pious. The hero frequently was portrayed as a martyr here on earth who, in the end, ascended to heavenly rewards. Topics are mostly borrowed.

Byzantine Law: Emperors in the Byzantine Civilization were responsible for preserving the traditional Roman law. They periodically had the statutes re-compiled and redrafted and had them modified to be in conformity with the existing law. Justinian between 528 and 533 CE ordered re-codification of existing law and had obsolete and conflicting laws eliminated from re- codification.

Codex Justinianus, later known as the Code of Justinian or, after a printed edition of 1583, appeared as the Corpus Juris Civilis.

Under Leo VI, 896-912 CE, a new collection called Basilics was put together. In the Byzantine Empire justice could be rendered only in the emperor’s name. He was the supreme judge.

Byzantine Entertainment for the Masses: At Byzantium, for public entertainment, chariot races were held in place of the more horrible and degrading gladiatorial spectacles that were seen in Rome during earlier days. However, unlike the situation elsewhere, such as in Rome years earlier, here the charioteers represented two rival parties, demes. In the Byzantine era, the term was used to refer to one of four chariot-racing factions, the Reds, the Blues, the Greens, and the Whites.

The two leading demes were labeled the Blues and the Greens. The races took place in Hippodrome. The most famous and most consequential such riot in Byzantine history took place in 532 CE. It has come down to us as the “Niki” revolt started at a race.

Byzantine Architecture: In Constantinople, the Church called Santa Sophia, which is known today by the appellation Hagia Sophia – or Divine Wisdom – was dedicated by the Emperor Justinian in 537 CE. Through many centuries, regimes, and movements, this magnificent religious structure has stood. Today, in the wake of the extensive reforms of Turkish President Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, the building’s soaring vaults and amazing dome show forth as testaments to the remarkable architectural design and to the engineering talents of its builders, and, some might say, to divine inspiration.

The Civilizing Infrastructure Of The Byzantine Civilization

The Byzantine Economy: The Byzantine capital became a thriving commercial center, located as it was, and thus enormously wealthy. Silk played a major role in the domestic life of the population. The imperial government prohibited the export of gold from the empire to preserve it from depletion. Nomisma, a Byzantine gold coin that was the standard of exchange for buying and selling goods all over the Mediterranean and in the East, lasted for many centuries.

Major Events Of The Byzantine Civilization And Timeline

The Byzantine Empire, an extension of the old Roman Empire, lasted for eleven centuries. Many call it the Byzantine Civilization, which draws upon the oldest name for the city. Others have called it “the later Roman Empire” and still others, especially after 800 CE, “the eastern Roman Empire.”

Timeline:

• 325 – 565 CE: The period entitled “The Byzantine Zenith” by author and historian Will Durant.
• 330: Constantine founded the new capital of the Roman Empire on the existing site of the ancient Greek city Byzantium. Byzantium was renamed Constantinople and it would become the capital of the Byzantine Empire.
• 395: The Roman Empire was divided in half, with the Eastern Roman Empire based in Constantinople and the Western Roman Empire based in Rome.
• 476: The Western Empire Fell. However, the Eastern Empire survived and now began to be labeled the Byzantine Empire.
• 526: Justinian’s reign began. The last man to use the title of Caesar, he reconquered parts of the fallen Western Empire (Africa and Italy, Spain). He codified Roman laws into one document. Constantinople at this time became the most glorious city in Europe, with 500,000 inhabitants. The Hagia Sofia was constructed.
• 568: Lombards invaded Italy, eventually taking Northern Italy from the Byzantines.
• 610: Heraclius became emperor and temporarily possessed Mesopotamia. The theme system was begun, three provinces (Syria, Palestine/Israel, and Egypt) were lost to the empire for many years, and the empire changed its language from Latin to Greek.
• 690: The North African provinces were lost to the Muslims.
• 726: Emperor Leo III banned the use of icons, setting off a major dispute that the emperors would lose in 843.
• 800: Charlemagne, king of the Franks, was crowned “Emperor of the Romans” by Pope Leo III in Rome. This meant that for the first time in 300 years, there were once again two Roman emperors – one in the east and one in the west.
• 1014: Basil II destroyed the Bulgar army, earning the epithet of “Bulgar Slayer.”
• 1071: The empire was defeated at the Battle of Manzikert by the Seljuk Turks, leading to the opening of most of Asia Minor to Islamic people.
• 1054: The Great Schism: The (Latin) Roman Church and the (Greek) Orthodox Church excommunicated each other.
• 1096: The Crusaders arrived at Constantinople. While they were successful, they eventually withdrew their support of the Byzantine rule.
• 1204: The Fourth Crusade captured Constantinople. This was a blow from which the Byzantines never fully recovered.
• 1453: Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks. This spelled the end, after eleven centuries of life, of the Byzantine Empire, but their civilization and culture has survived in various forms (especially religion) to the present day.