Introduction to World Civilization Dersi 4. Ünite Özet

Introduction

Early periods include the prehistoric times (250,000 to 5,500 BCE): the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic eras. Places like Yarımburgaz, Karain and Çatalhöyük existed in Anatolia then. One must begin more solid history with the Chalcolithic period (5500 to 3000 BCE). That was a time when people moved from caves to villages and first mined copper. Hacılar is one of the most important centers for the period. The second stage was the Bronze Age (3000 – 2000 BCE); it was during this era that the term “state” may begin to be applied. Further, there developed social classes, complicated economic activities and organized religion. The cities of Troy and Alacahöyük offer us good examples from the Bronze Age.

It is in the age of the Assyrian Colonies (1950 – 1750 BCE) that we can discern the early, almost historical period of Anatolia. Establishment of the Karum, trading posts, brought close cultural relations with Mesopotamia. The other considerable civilizational achievement in this period was the introduction of a writing system to Anatolia. Kanesh (Kültepe) reveals one of the best examples for this era.

The history of the Hittites may be divided into periods.

• During the time of Old Kingdom, we see the founding of Hattusa, the capital city of the Hittites, as well as the successful military campaigns of Hattushili I against Babylonia. During the Old Kingdom, the first example of public policy emerged, the Edict of Telipinu . In this Edict is found a positive suggestion on how to end civil wars and how to determine which of several brothers shall ascend to the throne.
• The Great Hittite Kingdom started with the reign of Shuppiluliuma I. The Hittites became one of the most powerful civilizations, a state equal to those of ancient Egypt or Babylonia. A new balance of power brought major wars, one of which occurred between the Hittites and the Egyptians. This war resulted in the Treaty of Kadesh, first international treaty ever signed between major powers.

After the collapse of the Hittite Empire, some city states appeared in southeastern Anatolia. This period is called the Late Hittite City States period and it lasted from 1200 to 650 BCE.

Their religion of the Hittites was polytheistic.

The Urartian Civilization flourished from 860 to 590 BCE and played an important role in Eastern Anatolia. It is mentioned first in Assyrian sources as “Uruatri.”

Phrygian tribes moved into Anatolia around 1200 BCE and established a strong kingdom, the capital of which was Gordion in central Anatolia. Their legendary kings were Gordios and Midas.

Finally, the Lydian civilization flourished in the western part of Anatolia after the collapse of the Phrygian civilization in the seventh century BCE.

Earliest Cultures in Anatolia

• Paleolithic Period (250,000 – 15,000 BCE) : The Paleolithic Period , also known as the Old Stone Age , is the oldest and longest period of the human history. Humans in this period first used caves and rock shelters as their dwellings. During this age, when a hunting and gathering economy prevailed, early humans strived to facilitate their lives by using simple tools they made of small stones. This age is studied under three development stages as the Lower, Middle and Upper Paleolithic Age .
• The Mesolithic Period (15,000 – 10,000 BCE): When the Ice Age died out toward the end of the Paleolithic Age, the Mesolithic (Epipaleolithic) Period - also known as the Middle Stone Age - paved the transition to the Neolithic Age. New weapons like bows and arrows replaced cumbersome weapons, and more importantly, small stone tools made of obsidian and flint stone were produced.
• The Neolithic Period (10,000 – 5,500 BCE): In the Neolithic Age (New Stone Age ), during which fundamental changes occurred in the life and subsistence of mankind, evidence shows that village life started while multiplication of beneficent plant and animal breeds introduced agriculture and animal husbandry. These early stages of the Neolithic Age have been labelled “Non - Ceramic Neolithic” (without pottery). he most well-known of the Early Neolithic Age settlements is Çatalhöyük on Konya Plain. Among the settlements dating to the Late Neolithic Period , which is the last stage of the Neolithic Period, was Hacılar to the southwest of Burdur, dating back to the early sixth millennium BCE.
• The Chalcolithic Period (5,500 – 3,000 BCE): The Chalcolithic Age , also known as the Late Village Period, ran between the first half of the sixth millennium BCE and the end of the fourth millennium BCE. During this period, the people of Anatolia discovered copper, in addition to stone, and started to use it in daily life.This period is studied under three sections: Early, Middle and Late .Regional characteristics developed during this age, and thus were formed regional cultures.
• In Thrace, the location where the Chalcolithic Age is best evidenced, is the tumulus or ancient burial mound of Aşağıpınar in Kırklareli.
• People here dwelled in detached, mud- daubed houses which had rectangular plans and wood pillars. Large human-shaped cult vases are notable relics here.
• The Early Bronze Age (3,000 – 2,000 BCE): During the Bronze Age , the people of Anatolia obtained bronze towards the end of the fourth millennium BCE and the beginning of the third millennium BCE by mixing tin into copper; therefore, the age was named the Bronze Age. This age is divided into three ages known as the First, Middle and the Late Bronze Age. The Early Bronze Age is studied under three stages, designated Stage I, Stage II and Stage III. The most important location of Stage I of the First Bronze Age in Anatolia is Troia (Troy). The first development of the institution we may label “the state” dates from this age, a time when powerful principalities emerged. Thus, Alacahöyük served as the capital of a principality during the end of the second period of the First Bronze Age; there, thirteen graves - ascertained to have been used during 2,300 – 2,000 BCE – have been discovered. Corpses in these graves, where princes, princesses, monks and nuns of the land of Hatti were buried, are in the “hocker” position with the knees tucked up against the chest. The gifts for the dead were included a disc peculiar to the Hattis. This is called the “ Hittite Solar Disc. ”
• The Age of the Assyrian Trade Colonies (1,950 – 1,750 BCE): Around this time, the indigenous Hattians lived in Anatolia, and many principalities were established. Among the names of their settlements were Nesha, Mama, Kusshara, Purushanda, Zalpa and Hattush. These are the only sites that are available to our knowledge. Around the middle of the Bronze Age, Assyrian tradesmen appear to have coveted the mines of Anatolia. For this reason, they established a system known as the Assyrian colonial system between 1950 - 1750 BCE. This was a period of organized trade that is called the Age of Assyrian Trade Colonies . Trading, which had previously taken place in an unsystematic manner, was made systematic through the formation of independent trading colonies, established in Anatolia, known as karum , trading posts that flourished from the 20th to the 18the centuries BCE.

The Mighty Hittite Civilization (1,650-1200 BCE) and the Late Hittite City States (1,200- 650 BCE)

Around 2,250 – 2,000 BCE, the Hittites, an IndoEuropean tribe, migrated into Anatolia. They moved among and thus started living with the Hattians, who at this time were the indigenous people of Anatolia. This coexistence blended the cultures of the Hittites and the Hattians. The principality of Kusshara was Hittite, and it was founded among other principalities which were Hattian, or Hurrian, in origin. Thus, settlements such as Nesha, Hattusha, Mama, Purushanda and Zalpa arose during this period.

From the documents which are known as the ‘Anitta text’ and which bear the characteristics of the Hatti language, it is known that Anitta declared himself the son of Pithana. It was also written that he was the king of the city of Kusshara.

Anitta

• (1750 - l700 BCE) moved the center of the state to Nesha
• took Hattusha in 1720 BCE

Hattushili I

• ruled from 1660 to l630 BCE
• ransformed a relatively small princely state into an actual kingdom

Murshili I (1630 - 1600 BCE)

• ruled the state in peace and tranquility, expanding its borders as far as the seas
• made a successful military expedition to Halep and Babylon

Hantili I (1600 - 1570 BCE)

Zidanta I in 1570 BCE

Kings  Ammuna (1560 - 1540 BCE)

Huzziya I (1540 - 1535 BCE)

Telipinu

• brought an end to dynastic succession conflicts
• eclared a law (known to history as the Edict of Telipinu) which concluded that the first male child born from the first wife of the king would be designated to ascend to the throne, primogeniture
• issued with the approval of the Pankush, the Hittite Council of Nobles
• concluded an agreement with the king of Kizzuvatna

Tuthalia II (1460 - 1440 BCE)

• restored the kingdom to full strength
• founder of the Great Hittite Kingdom

Shuppiluliuma I (1380 - 1345 BCE)

• He established subsidiary states as far away as along the borders of Syria and Palestine, thus reasserting the power of the Hittite state.
• He ensured the loyalty of bordering states such as Ugarit in Syria and the kingdoms of Kizzuvatna and Amurru in the south, through competent diplomacy.
• Clearly, Shuppiluliuma I was the most successful statesman of the era and he brought an end to the challenge that had arisen from the Kingdom of Mitanni. He used this state as a buffer state against Assyria.
• One may conclude that the great empire ruled by Shuppiluliuma I reached a power equaling that of Babylon and Egypt.

Murshili II

• commissioned all the events of his period as wellas all his deeds to be written in the documents known as annuals (annals)

Muvatalli (1315 - 1282 BCE)

• settled running disputes with his neighbors to the west by diplomacy
• appointed his brother Hattushili as the general governor of the vast region in the north where the Kashgans resided.

Hattushili III (1275 - 1250 BCE)

• signed a peace agreement with the Egyptians in 1270 BCE, the name of which is the Treaty of Kadesh, and he ensured a continuity of the peace between the two large states. Two texts of the agreement survive to this day.

Queen Puduhepa

• made great use of religion in politics

Shuppiluliuma II

• was the last king of the Hittites

Hittite Culture and Civilization: he most advanced branch in Hittite art is architecture. The Hittite form of architecture. Houses were also small models of the palaces. The Hittites used stone, adobe and wood together in these structures. Sphinx, lion, warrior and god depictions in monumental sizes seen at the city gates had guard functions. The most beautiful examples of this figurative art can be seen at the sphinx gate in Alacahöyük and at the gates on the ramparts of Boğazköy. Rock embossments created to sanctify gods can be seen in the Yazılıkaya Open Air Temple. Animal- shaped embossed vases, known as Rhyton , which were used by the Hittites to offer drinks during religious rituals or to sacrifice liquids to the gods, are unique examples of this form of ceramic art. Pots with human faces also seem to have been created. Beak- mouthed jugs form a distinct group. A form of polytheistic religion prevailed among the Hittites. This is confirmed by the expression “a thousand gods of the land of Hatti” contained in a text. The Hittites adopted the gods of the Palaians, the Luvians and the Hattians, thus creating a tolerant, polytheistic religion.

In addition, Syrian-originated gods seem to have existed as well. he greatest male deity was Teshup , who represented the sky, whereas the head of all the goddesses was Hepat. Hepat , who was the solar goddess of Arinna, continued to be worshipped in Anatolia as Kubaba during the Late Hittite period, and as Kybele later. he Hittite language included words from the Hatti, Luvian and Hurrian languages.

The Period of the Late Hittite City States (1200 – 650 BC): The migration wave around 1190 BCE, starting in Greece and spreading to Anatolia and throughout the Levant, known as the “Aegean Migrations of the Sea Peoples,” spelled doom for the Hittite Empire. n the 8 Century BCE, a time now named the Late Hittite City States Period. It constituted a continuation of the Hittite civilization.

These city states and their territories included:

• Kingdom of Tabal, in the regions of Kayseri, Niğde, Nevşehir and Ürgüp,
• Kingdom of Kummuh, in the region covering Gürün, Malatya and surroundings,
• Kingdom of Que, in the region of Kahramanmaraş, Gaziantep and Çukurova,
• Kingdom of Hilakku, in the region of the Taurus Mountains,
• Kingdom of Milidia (Melid), in the territories of Malatya, Elbistan and Gürün,
• Kingdom of Carchemish, in the south of Gaziantep,
• Kingdom of Hattina, in the region of Hatay,
• Kingdom of Samal, near the Zincirli Höyük,

Culture of Late Hittite City States: Four main artistic styles have been detected in these city states:

• Traditional style,
• Late Hittite style,
• Assyrian style and
• Arami and Phoenician style.

Urartian Civilization (860-590 BCE)

The history of culture in the territory of Van dates to the Prehistoric Ages. For instance, rock paintings in the Trişin Plateau of Çatak extend as late as the Mesolithic Age. Cultural relics from the Chalcolithic, Bronze and Iron Age have been encountered at the site of an ancient burial mount -- the Tumulus of Tilkitepe -- which is within the borders of the airport today, and at the Erciş Cemeteries to the north of Lake Van.

The Assyrian King, Salmanasar I (1274 - 1244 BCE), reported that a confederation named Uruatri was made up of eight different tribes. Assyrian records reveal that tribes, known as the Nairis, lived in this region. It was in 840 BCE that Sarduri I gathered these tribes under his leadership and established the Urartu state, making Tushpa (Van) the capital. On the north-western flank of the Van Castle, there is an epitaph showing this construction. This epitaph was dedicated to Sarduri, who entitled himself as “the king of kings.”

The greatest military move of King Ishpuini was his expeditions to the south. The epitaph of Kelişin, which sheds light on the expeditions in Turkey, Iraq and Iran, tells that Ishpuini took the city of Mushasir from the Assyrians and erected a temple there for the chief god.

Urartian Culture: The Urartians used cuneiform script. Their language was deciphered by making use of bilingual epitaphs written in both Assyrian and Urartian. Their religion was polytheistic and the main three gods were the chief god Haldi, the sky god Teisheba , and the solar godSivini. Cauldrons, belt buckles, shields, offering plates for vows, and harnesses uncovered during expeditions all testify to the mastery of the Urartians in metal workmanship. Castles, temples, palaces, dams and irrigation channels, as well as open air temples carved in stone, are all evidence of the monumental architecture achievements of the Urartians. They established their castles and cities on high rocky areas and used the level grounds for agricultural purposes. The temples were made of stone and the interiors of them were adorned with rich motifs. Excavations reveal that they established a very good system of removing waste and waste water.

Phrygian Civilization (1200-695 BCE)

Given that the Trojan War took place around 1200 BCE, it is apparent that the Phrygians lived in Anatolia around this date. However, it is also known that Phrygians previously inhabited Europe (where they were named Brygians or Brigians). They were one of the Thracian tribes who migrated to Anatolia, and their original country was Macedonia. They were first organized as a tribe and were headed by leaders such as Mygdon, Askanios and Otreus. While living around Lake İznik and in the Sakarya Valley, they later enlarged and expanded towards inner Anatolia. Phrygian artefacts in all the Hittite cities found in the archaeological excavations prove this. Formerly organized as separate principalities, they established a strong state and made Gordion their capital.

Gordios is the first king of the Phrygians. After the king Gordios died, his son Midas ascended to the Phrygian throne. The Assyrians referred to Phrygians as Mushki, and to Midas as Mita and spoke of him as ‘Mita of Mushki.’ Midas’ biggest rival was the Assyrian King, Sargon II (721 - 705 BCE). It becomes clear from these epitaphs, too, that Midas was closely interested in the east. Entering the Phrygian territories, the Cimmerians conducted a successful war with the Phrygians. Midas lost the war. With the death of Midas in 696 BCE, the Phrygian State came to an end.

Phrygian Culture: The Phrygian language was developed from the Phoenician alphabet, and it later played an influential role in the Greek alphabet. The most spectacular of the many cult centers that the Phrygians constructed for their mother goddess are seen at the intersection of the provinces of Eskişehir, Kütahya and Afyonkarahisar, which is called “The Mountainous Phrygia”.

The development of Phrygian art is divided into three stages: Early (750 - 730 BCE), Transition (730 - 725 BCE), and Mature (725 - 650 BCE). The Phrygians also reached a high level in metal workmanship. Spring pins and safety pins were technological inventions of the Phrygians. Phrygians were also famous for their textiles and especially for their rugs, the ancestors of today’s Turkish rugs. That Central Anatolian sheep had highquality wool must have had an impact on the development of weaving. The ivory comb found in Gordion indicates another artistic branch of the Phrygians.

The Lydian Civilization (700-300 BCE)

After Lydos became the king, the region came to be cited as Lydia. Then came another dynasty, one which was known as “The Sons of Heracles.” Herodotus reported on the history of this Lydian dynasty. Early in his history, Herodotus wrote of the last king of this dynasty, King Candaules. he Lydians constructed a magnificent tumulus by Lake Marmara and buried King Gyges there.

Alyattes , the Lydian king, expnded the borders to Medes, in İran. It was not long before these two super-powers confronted each other militarily. The wars continued for five years and turned out to be a stalemate. In the sixth year of the war, on the 28th of May in 585 BCE, while the two armies engaged in a battle, a solar eclipse took place and it became dark. The famous philosopher Thales of Miletus had been informed of the solar eclipse beforehand; however, both sides in the war interpreted this as a sign that the gods did not want war. Thereupon, peace was declared.

The Lydian King Alyattes started to forge coins during this peace period. The first coins were made from electrum, an alloy of 55 % gold, 45 % silver and a small amount of bronze.

Croesus was a very rich king. Instead of electrum coins, he commissioned gold and silver coins to be issued.

Lydian Culture: They created many goods using clay from clay seams containing large amounts of mica and they used marble seams from mountains to create engravings and sarcophagi. And at least one of their rivers, the Pactolus, contained significant amounts of gold.

The capital city of Sardes was admired by all the ancient world and the Lydians created successful works during this period. Sculptors and architects came from Ionia and art ambassadors from the east gathered in Sardes, creating a cosmopolitan environment. he embossments in the Temple of Kybele in Sardes give us an insight into the Lydian art. Ivory carvings and gold craftsmanship were much in evidence.

In addition to golden items, some silver pieces reveal the high achievements of Lydia in art. Colored wall pictures together with multi-colored terra-cotta panels decorated the exterior of buildings, another distinctive feature of Lydian culture.