Diplomacy Dersi 4. Ünite Sorularla Öğrenelim

What is the definition of diplomacy?

Diplomacy can be broadly defined as “an instrument of solving problems between the states before going into an armed conflict.”

What is "Ad hoc diplomacy"?

It was the diplomatic system adapted by the states before the establishment of modern, permanent diplomacy in the 14th and 15th centuries. States were sending temporary representatives or missionaries to each other for specific missions.
For the solution of problems, signing treaties, declaring their war or peace decisions, etc. rulers were sending their representatives. After the formation of modern diplomacy, states began to adapt professional and permanent institutions and instruments.

When did the Ottoman Empire started to use ad hoc diplomacy? Who was the ruler at the time?

The Ottoman Empire used ad hoc diplomacy until the end of 18th century. The reign of Selim III, who was closely following the developments in Europe, was a turning point in the adaptation of modern diplomacy. Especially with Mahmud II, the Ottoman Empire began to adapt the rules and institutions of modern diplomacy despite some shortcomings.

When was the first time the capitulations were granted in the Ottoman history? Whom they were granted to?

For the first time in Ottoman history, Mehmed II granted capitulations to Venetians in 1454 on the basis of existing custom which was derived from the capitulatory agreement between the Byzantine Empire and Venice.

When and why did diplomacy begin to be more important than warfare to the Ottoman Empire? 

From the 18th century onwards, the power pendulum began to move from the Ottomans to the European states and diplomacy became more important for the Ottomans than warfare. However, the Ottoman Empire waited for about a century to adapt the institutions and instruments of modern diplomacy and to replace their ad hoc
diplomacy.

How can the Âman (Mercy) System be defined? How did it change in the heydays of the Ottoman Empire?

In the heydays of the Ottoman Empire, its relations with foreign states were not
based on mutuality, but on unilaterality. This system was known as the Âman (Mercy) System. Âman was the privilege or immunity granted by the sultan to foreigners or non-Muslims. This system which protected the rights of non-Muslims within the boundaries of the empire was unilaterally granted by the Ottomans. In addition, Âman system constituted the basis of treaties and agreements signed between the Ottomans and foreign states.

Which state was the first to open an embassy in Istanbul?

Venice was the first state opened an embassy in Istanbul right after the conquest.

What is "Permanent diplomacy"?

It is the diplomatic system began to be adapted by the Italian city states in the 14th and 15th  enturies. This system evolved in time and institutions and instruments of modern diplomacy took shape. With this system, ministries of foreign affairs and diplomatic missions were established, diplomats were recruited and trained. Today,
instruments and institutions of modern diplomacy are the core elements of inter-state relations. However, with the acceleration of globalization process, tools and actors of diplomacy diversified.

What is the name of the reports that Ottomon Envoys were assigned to evaluate their missions? Whom does the oldest diplomatic letter of the empire belong to?

Ottoman envoys assigned by the sultan to carry out specific diplomatic activities were evaluating their missions in the reports called Sefaretname(Diplomatic Letters). Diplomatic letters were rich sources for the Ottoman diplomacy and diplomatic missions. The number of these diplomatic letters were about forty and the oldest diplomatic letter belongs to Kara Mehmet Pasha sent to Vienna to ameliorate relations between the empire and Austria after Vasvar Treaty had been signed in 1664.

What are the reasons of the decline of the Ottoman Empire after the 17th century?

First of all, Ottoman rulers were not eligible like Mehmed II, Selim I and Suleyman I and they lost the control in the central authority. Secondly, as a result of the developments in Europe such as Renaissance and Reformation, modern and secular states and armies began to form, so there was no power vacuum in the continent that can be filled by the Ottomans. On the contrary, the empire lost its dynamism in science
and technology as well as military structure. Thirdly, with the geographical discoveries and the change of trade routes, the Ottomans lost their control and hegemony in the economic realm. In addition, due to defeats in wars and territorial losses, they lost the
majority of their revenues.

What accelerated the collapse of the Ottoman Empire?

The French Revolution (1789) and the Industrial Revolution (started in the late 18th
century) had serious impact on the Ottoman Empire. Ideas of nationalism, nation-state, equality, fraternity, liberty and justice born out of the French Revolution accelerated the collapse of the empire as other multi-ethnic and multi-religious
empires.

What did the Ottoman Empire do in order to save the empire from disintegrating and prevent foreign countries from intervening in domestic policies? 

In 1839 Tanzimat Edict and in 1856 Islahat (Reform) Edict were declared to grant some rights and privileges to the foreign subjects of the Empire. The main actors of this process were the Ottoman diplomats Mustafa Reşid Pasha, Ali Pasha and Fuad Pasha who were formulating and implementing Ottoman foreign policy in this period.

What happened after the Ottoman Empire came to an end?

In order to fill this power vacuum, Republican regime was established on October 29,
1923. The Republican regime was a rupture from the Ottoman Empire, but it inherited some feature of the latter and diplomacy can be regarded as one of these  ommonalities, to some extent, between the empire and the republic.

When and by whom Modernization and professionalization of Ottoman diplomacy was started?

the Ottoman Empire adapted the rules and instruments of modern diplomacy starting from the 19th century. In the same vein, they modernized the instruments and institutions of their diplomatic structure. Modernization and professionalization of Ottoman diplomacy started with Selim III, who was a visionary sultan seeking for modernization and Westernization of Ottoman system in all aspects such as the military, bureaucracy and economy.

Who were the Dragomans?

Dragomans were responsible for the translation of reports, documents and treaties in the Ottoman Empire especially in the classical age. They were integral parts of the Ottoman diplomacy from the beginning. Dragomans were selected among the people who knew foreign languages. After the Ottoman Empire had begun to modernize and professionalize its diplomacy, translators in the Translation Room and Ministry of Foreign Affairs replaced Dragomans.

What was the mission of the ambassadors in the permanent diplomacy period of the Ottomon Empire?

Missions of the Ottoman ambassadors in the permanent diplomacy period were similar to the ad hoc period. Ottoman ambassadors were responsible for observing, following and reporting the developments in the states that they were accredited to. In addition, they were closely following the press and translating and sending the news to the capital regularly. Ottoman ambassadors were the main element of the communication between the empire and the receiving state. They were reporting the events and the developments as well as the policies of the receiving state. Furthermore, they were the intermediaries between two states during peace negotiations and signing of peace treaties. More importantly, Ottoman ambassadors were observing and analyzing social, economic and military structure of the receiving state as well as technological and scientific developments. All-in-all, missions of Ottoman ambassadors played an important role in the modernization and Westernization of the empire in this period. Their observations and analyses inspired the rulers to make necessary changes and
reforms

What was the role of Reis-ül Küttap in Ottoman Empire?

The head of secretaries in the Ottoman diplomatic system. Initially, they were responsible for conducting Ottoman diplomatic correspondence until the end of
18th century. After the modernization and professionalization of Ottoman diplomacy
with Selim III, they began to act as the minister of foreign affairs. However, these
people were not professional diplomats eligible for conducting diplomatic relations
due to the lack of their knowledge about diplomatic rules and instruments. After
Mahmud II had established the ministry of foreign affairs and started to modernize the
Translation Room, they were replaced by professional diplomats.

How did the power shifted  from the palace to the Bab-ı Âli?

After Abdulmecit (1839-1861) had come to throne, power was shifted from the palace to the Bab-ı Âli (government) due to the dominance of the men of Tanzimat: Mustafa Reşid Pasha, Âli Pasha and Fuad Pasha. They were professional diplomats and ardent supporters of modernization and Westernization. They were following the developments in the West and they ruled the state as ambassadors, ministers of foreign affairs and
Grand Viziers successively for thirty years. In this period, extensive reforms were carried out ranging from political and economic to military and legal structure of the Ottoman Empire. These statesmen had closer relations with European powers because
of their service to the state as diplomats, ministers and Grand Viziers, so they played an important role for the establishment of close relations with European powers as well as the professionalization and modernization of diplomatic institutions in the Ottoman Empire.

When did Muslim and Turkish translators and diplomats begin to be trained?

At the beginning, Greeks and Armenians were recruited in the Translation Room and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, but with the reign of Mahmud II, Muslim and Turkish translators and diplomats began to be trained.

In what ways does the Turkish diplomacy resemble the Ottoman Empire's?

when the dynamics and institutions of Turkish foreign policy and diplomacy are considered, the heritage of Ottoman diplomacy can be clearly seen. In terms of mindset, objectives, instruments and institutions, Turkish diplomacy can be regarded as a continuation of Ottoman diplomacy.